THE ZSMC BATTERY ARCHITECTURE / Failure Analysis
Every electrochemical system degrades. Our research focuses on identifying, understanding, and mitigating the specific failure mechanisms inherent to zinc-aqueous systems.
Anode failures
The primary challenges at the anode are passivation—where an insulating layer forms on the active material—and hydrogen evolution, a parasitic side reaction common in aqueous environments.
During discharge, zinc oxidizes and can form insulating compounds (like ZnO) that precipitate onto the electrode surface. This passivation layer blocks active sites, increasing internal resistance and ultimately cutting off capacity before all active material is utilized.
Because the reduction potential of zinc is lower than that of hydrogen evolution in certain pH ranges, parasitic hydrogen gas generation can occur. This reaction consumes water from the electrolyte, increases internal pressure, and reduces coulombic efficiency.
Cathode and Electrolyte failures
The cathode is limited by structural integrity under deep discharge and rate-dependent material accessibility. The electrolyte faces mechanical and hydration challenges.
Deep discharge of MnO2 can lead to irreversible structural changes (such as the formation of inactive manganese species or structural collapse of the crystal lattice). This limits the depth of discharge achievable while maintaining structural stability.
While CuO is included to provide a secondary plateau, its lower electronic and ionic conductivity means that at higher C-rates, the active core of CuO particles may become inaccessible. This shifts the failure mode from capacity-limited to rate-limited.
The quasi-solid gel relies on maintaining a specific hydration level for ion transport. Parasitic reactions (like hydrogen evolution) or thermal stress can cause localized dehydration or mechanical cracking, breaking the ionic conduction pathway.